Bahasa Inggris Bisnis 2 / Minggu 12 / Style in Written English

Style in Written English

An English writing style is a way of using the English language.

The style of a piece of writing is the way in which features of the language are used to convey meaning, typically but not always within the constraints of more widely accepted conventions of usage, grammar, and spelling.

An individual's writing style may be a very personal thing. Organizations that employ writers or commission written work from individuals may require that writers conform to a standardized style defined by the organization. This allows a consistent readability of composite works produced by many authors, and promotes usability of, for example, references to other cited works.

In many kinds of professional writing aiming for effective transfer of information, adherence to a standardised style of writing helps readers make sense of what the writer is presenting. Many standardised styles are documented in style guides. Some styles are more widely used, others restricted to a particular journal. Adherence to no particular style is also a style in its own right; some may think it undesirable, others not.

Principles of English written style:

Note: these are principles: they are by no means to be considered as "rules".

• The more formal a document  is, the more it will use inanimate nouns as subjects of a sentence.
• The more formal language is, the more it is likely to use passive structures.
• The more formal language is, the more verbal nouns it will use.
• The more formal a document is, the more words of Latin origin it will use.

Conversely

• The more informal or spontaneous language is, the more it will use humans as the subjects of sentences.
• The more informal a text is, the less it will use passive structures,
• The more informal a text is, the more it will use verb structures (where a choice is possible) instead of verbal nouns.
• The more informal or spoken a text is, the more words of Germanic origin it will use.

Here are some examples; in each case, the same idea is expressed using three different levels of formality: look at the different changes that occur, as we move from a formal style to an informal one.

1.      The inclement climatic conditions obliged the President to return earlier than scheduled.
The president was obliged to return earlier than planned due to poor weather conditions.
The president had to go back sooner than  planned because the weather was so bad.

2.      Please await instructions before dispatching items.
Please wait for instructions before sending items off.
Don't send anything off until you're told to do so. Essential measures should be undertaken at the earliest opportunity.
One should undertake any necessary measures at the earliest opportunity.
You should do whatever you have to as soon as you can. Prior to the discovery of America, potatoes were not consumed in Europe.
Before America was discovered, potatoes were not eaten in Europe.
Before they discovered America, Europeans didn't eat potatoes.

                                                                                                                        

From Written to spoken styles

Written and spoken versions of a language use different styles, different registers. To talk in "written English" may be no more appropriate than to write using a "spoken" variety of English. Generally speaking, written English is always more formal than spoken English. nevertheless, there are informal forms of written English (notably in fiction and in the popular press), and formal styles of spoken English, in particular "discourse", or prepared speech.

In the following examples, the same message is expressed in five different styles, from an extremely formal written style, to the very informal spoken style. 

Note in particular how the colour coded word groups evolve.  (The information expressed in the following examples is necessarily quite technical, as formal jargon levels of expression are totally inappropriate for non technical communication). 

Example 

a)      Jargon, very formal. This is the style of language used in official reports, technical studies, etc. It is exclusively a style of written English, full of verbal nouns,technical words and passives.
Consequent to the appreciation in the exchange value of Sterling against other currencies, necessary fiscal measures were introduced by the government in order to reduce the likelihood of an import-led consumer spending surge.

b)      Written, formal, clear.
This is clear, written English, as found in the press or in documents aimed at ordinary educated readers.
After the international value of Sterling rose, the government was obliged to take fiscal measures to reduce the likelihood of a surge in consumer spending led by cheaper imports.

c)      Written style for the general public, discourse, scripted radio or TV news style.
As the value of Sterling increased compared to other currencies, the government was forced to take tax measures to head offa rapid increase in consumer spending spurred on by cheaper imports.

d)     Formal spoken style - radio, seminar, talk.
As Sterling's international value went up, the government had to take tax measures to head off a consumer spending boom spurred on by cheaper imports.

e)      Relaxed, informal spoken style: discussion.
There is plenty of use of prepositional verbs. All actions are now expressed through verbs, not verbal nouns
As Sterling went up in value, the government had to put up taxes to stop consumers splashing out on too many cheap imports.

f)       relaxed, simplified, chat, very informal spoken style; 
Note the addition of repetition and fillers.
And you see, Sterling went up and up in value, so as a result, the government had to go round putting up taxes, you see, to stop everyone going out and splashing out, spending all their cash on cheap imports.

A.   Question

Questions terdapat beberapa kalimat Tanya dalam bahasa inggris yaitu : yes/no questions information questions, dan embedded questions. Positive yes/no questions. Pola-pola kalimat tanya yang telah diberikan pada pembahasan tiap tenses secara umum dapat diringkas menjadi:

Auxiliary Be Do/does/did

+ subject + verb . . .

Contoh:

Have you finished doing your homework?

Will you go to watch a movie with me tonight?

Is she pretty?

2. Negative yes/no questions

Pola yang sangat formal untuk negative yes/no questions adalah NOT diletakkan setelah subject.

Auxiliary Be Do/does/did

+ subject + NOT + verb . . .

Tapi, pola di atas sangat jarang digunakan dibandingkan dengan pola berikut:

Auxiliary Be Do/does/did

NOT

+ subject + verb . . .

Contoh:

Isn’t the earth that travels around the sun? (Bukankah bumi yang mengitari matahari?). Di sini si penanya ingin memastikan bahwa bumilah yang mengitari bumi dan bukan sebaliknya.

Aren’t you making spaghetti? (Bukankah kamu sedang masak spaghetti?)

Information questions

Information questions adalah kalimat tanya yang membutuhkan jawaban berupa explanation (penjelasan). Kata tanya yang digunakan dapat berupa single word: what, where, why, who, whom, whose, which atau how; atau berupa phrase: whose + noun (noun-nya siapa), how long (berapa lama/berapa panjang), how many (berapa banyak), how much (berapa banyak), how often, what time, what kind (tipe/jenis/macam apa), which one (yang manakah), etc.

Ada 2 pola information questions, yaitu:

a.       Jika yang ditanyakan adalah subject kalimat. Inversi auxiliary/be/do/does/did tidak diperlukan. Yang diperlukan hanyalah mengganti subject kalimat dengan kata tanya. Kata tanya yang dapat digunakan dalam pola ini adalah what, who, dan kata tanya berupa phrase (i.e. whose+noun, how many+noun, how much+noun, etc.) .

Who What Kata  tanya berupa phrase

+ verb + (object) + (modifier)

Contoh:

Someone cleaned the house. Who cleaned the house? INCORRECT jika: Who did clean the house?

Somebody has been killed. Who has been killed?

eny is smiling at her boyfriend’s photo. Who is smiling at her boyfriend’s photo?

Embedded Questions

Embedded question adalah pertanyaan yang sudah tersirat dalam sebuah kalimat,

Subject + verb + KATA TANYA + subject + verb. atau pertanyaan yang sudah tersirat dalam sebuah kalimat tanya yang lain:

Auxiliary Be Do/does/did

+ subject + verb +

KATA TANYA + subject + verb.

Contoh:

Some students still don’t know when they should submit their assignment. INCORRECT jika: Some students still don’t know when should they submit their assignment. Incorrect karena auxilliary should diletakkan sebelum subject kalimat.

Nobody can predict when the Lapindo disaster will end. INCORRECT jika: Nobody can predict when will the Lapindo disaster end.

B.     Sequance of tenses

Dalam penulisan bahasa inggris, sequence of tenses adalah logika yang mengatur tentang tenses, misalnya sebuah kejadian di future tense tidak bisa terjadi di past tense. Dalam writing, sequence of tenses menentukan dimana sebuah kejadian terjadi. Kejadian past tense datang sebelum kejadian present tense, kejadian present tense datang sebelum kejadian future tense dll. Hal ini bisa kita lihat pada if clause.

Contohnya :

1.      Jika seorang berkata “I need to go to the store” maka anda harus mengatakannya “she said that she needed to go to the store” anda mengubah “need” menjadi “needed” padahal kejadiannya masih sama-sama dalam present tense.

2.      “if you could meet me at the airport, I would be grateful” ini merupakan kejadian present tense tapi kita mengubah “can” menjadi “could” karena ini adalah conditional sentence.

3.      “I wish I had been at the party last night” kalimat ini merupakan kejadian past tense yang tidak terjadi tapi kita menggunakan past perfect untuk mengatakannya.

	Past	Present	Future
Simple	Past	Present	Future
Continuous	Past Continuous	Present Continuous	Future Continuous
Perfect	Past Perfect	Present Perfect	Future Perfect
Perfect Continuous	Past Perfect Continuous	Present Perfect Continuous	Future Perfect Continuous

Contoh penerapannya adalah sebagai berikut:

	Past	Present	Future
Simple	She sang a song	She sings a song	She will sing a song
Continuous	She was singing	She is singing	She will be singing
Perfect	She had sung	She has sung	She will have sung
Perfect Continuous	She had been singing	She has been singing	She will have been singing

C.   Say dan Tell

Say dan Tell mempunyai arti yang sedikit berbeda, yaitu "berkata" dan "mengatakan". Dalam tata bahasa (Grammar) Bahasa Inggris, terutama dalam topik Reported Speech, keduanya mempunyai pola yang berbeda. Cara sederhana untuk melihat sepintas perbedaan keduanya adalah pada contoh berikut:

- You say something

- You tell someone something.

You say something	You tell someone something
Ram said that he was tired	Ram told Jane that he was tired.
Anthony says you have a new job	Anthony tells me you have a new job
Tara said: “I love you.”	Tara told John that she loved him.

D.   Antecendents of pronouns

Dalam penulisan bahasa inggris, antecedent adalah kata yang digantikan oleh pronoun. Kata antecedent berarti “sebelumnya”. Hal ini dikarenakan pronoun sering menggantikan kata sebelumnya atau kata yang sudah disebutkan terlebih dahulu sebelumnya.

Contohnya :

1.      “when you see the profesor, please tell him I”ll be 10 minutes late” dalam kalimat ini kata “profesor” merupakan antecedent dan kata “him” merupakan pronoun dari kata “profesor” yang terlebih dahulu disebutkan.

2.      “gail called to say she will arrive at 7 o’clock “ dalam kalimat ini “gail merupakan antecedent dan kata “she” merupakan pronoun.

3.      “The man who lives next door lost his driving license” dalam contoh ini kata “man” merupakan antecedent dari relative pronoun “his”.

Walaupun arti kata antecedent adalah “sebelumnya” antecedent tidak selalu disebutkan di awal, namun bisa juga disebutkan setelah pronoun seperti dalam kalimat “when you see him, please tell the profesor I”ll be late 10 minutes” kata profesor masih merupakan antecedent dari pronoun “him” namun kata “profesor” disebutkan di akhir setelah pronoun.

Kata benda (noun) yang diwakili oleh kata ganti (pronoun) dikenal dengan istilah antecedent. Kata benda tersebut dapat berupa sebuah kata, frase, atau klausa. Pada umumnya, dalam sebuah kalimat, antecedent terletak sebelum kata ganti.

Perhatikan contoh kalimat berikut ini, yang berhuruf tebal adalah pronouns dan yang bergaris bawah adalah antecedents.

- The car that I want is on sale.
- The teacher asked the children where they were going.
- The government workers received their paychecks.
- I threw the keys to him and he caught them.

Pronoun harus setara dengan antecedent-nya. Dengan kata lain, jika antecedent berupa singular maka pronoun juga harus singular. Jika antecedent berupa plural maka pronoun juga harus plural. Dalam kalimat, kadang-kadang pronoun berlaku sebagai antecedent yang diwakili oleh pronoun lainnya.

E.     DANGLING CONSTRUCTION

Dangling adalah sebuah kesalahan dalam struktur kalimat dimana ada ketidakcocokan antara apa yang dimaksud oleh penulis atau pembicara dengan apa yang dimaksud oleh pembaca atau pendengar. Kesalahan ini tentu akan menyebabkan kesalahpahaman. Maksud yang ingin disampaikan tidak akan tersampaikan secara utuh dan menyeluruh.

Dangling Modifier dalam Bahasa Inggris biasanya terjadi karena si penulis atau pembicara tidak meletakkan Subjek kalimat pada awal induk kalimat. Perhatikan contoh kalimat di bawah ini:

Having finished eating dinner, the desserts were eaten.
(Setelah selesai makan malam, pencuci mulut dimakan)

Apa yang salah pada kalimat di atas?
Pada pelajaran Participle, setelah participial adjectives (having finished eating dinner), subjek kalimat selanjutnya adalah subjek kalimat pertama. Ini artinya, kalimat di atas akan menjadi:
After the desserts have finished eating dinner, the desserts were eaten.
(Setelah pencuci mulut itu selesai makan malam, pencuci mulut dimakan)
Kalau begini kasusnya, berarti kalimat di atas salah. Oleh karena itu, kita harus meletakkan subjek kalimat yang tepat sehingga maknanya tidak berubah. Jadi siapa yang selesai makan malam? Inilah yang membingungkan. Inilah yang disebut Dangling Modifier.
Agar kalimat diatas tidak membingungkan, maka kita dapat merubahnya dengan kalimat di bawah ini:
Having finished eating dinner, we ate the desserts.
(Setelah kami selesai makan malam, kami makan pencuci mulutnya)
Masalah-masalah dengan Dangling Modifiers
Ada 2 (dua) jenis masalah dengan Dangling Modifiers:
Pronoun sering tidak digunakan, sehingga frase pembuka kalimat tidak menjelaskan kata-kata yang mengikutinya.
Tidak Jelas: Running across the street, the bus left.
Frase atau kata dalam sebuah kalimat terlalu jauh dari kata yang menjelaskannya.
Tidak Jelas: A dependable car, the family decided to buy the mini-van.
Mengatasi Masalah Dangling Modifiers
Ada 2 cara mengatasi Dangling Modifiers.
Induk kalimat dapat dibuat berdiri sendiri. Gunakan kata penghubung sebagai Anak Kalimat.
Tidak Jelas: Running down the street, the house was on fire.
 (Ketika berlari ke jalan, rumah itu terbakar)
 Revisi: When the man ran down the street, the house was on fire.
 (Ketika pria itu berlari ke jalan, rumah itu terbakar)
Participial Construction dapat dibuat berdiri sendiri sedangkan Induk Kalimat menjelaskannya sehingga seolah-olah kata yang dijelaskannya itu berada di awal kalimat.
Tidak Jelas: Running down the street, the house was on fire.
(Ketika berlari ke jalan, rumah itu terbakar)
Revisi: Running down the street, the man saw the house was on fire.
(Ketika pria itu berlari ke jalan, pria itu melihat rumah itu terbakar)

Dalam penulisan bahasa inggris, dangling construction adalah sebuah modifier yang gagal dalam kalimat. Tugas modifier adalah mendeskripsikan secara khusus sebuah kata.

Contohnya :

1.      “ having read your letter, my cat will stay indoors until the ducklings fly off” dalam kaimat ini secara arti menyatakan bahwa kucing itu sedang membaca surat padahal maksut penulis sebenarnya adalah kita akan membiarkan kucing di dalam rumah selama kita membaca surat. Seharusnya modifier yang tepat adalah “ having read your letter, we will keep our cat indoors until the ducklings fly off”

2.      “ Meticulous and punctual, david’s work ethic is admirable” modifier “meticulous and punctual” gagal menjelaskan “david’ dan malah menjelaskan “david’s work ethic”. Kalimat yang seharusnya adalah “meticulous and punctual, david has an admirable work ethic”.

3.      “Having seen blackpool tower, the eiffel tower is more impressive” dalam kalimat ini modifier “having seen blackpool tower” seharusnya tidak menjelaskan eiffel tower karena artinya akan janggal, kalimat yang benar seharusnyaa “having seen blackpool tower, she thinks the eiffel tower is more impressive”.

SUMBER       :

http://whest24.blogspot.co.id/2014/07/style-in-written-english.html

http://nandamuharman.blogspot.co.id/2012/03/v-behaviorurldefaultvmlo.html